AP Biology Lab Manual Overview

• Enzymes are proteins and organic catalysts.
• Enzyme function is determined by the shape/structure of the protein.
• Chemical reactions proceed at a faster rate when an enzyme is present.
• The induced fit model describes enzyme function.
• Enzyme–substrate complexes must form to reduce the activation energy of the reaction.

EVO-2.B: Describe the fundamental molecular and cellular features shared across all domains of life, which provide evidence of common ancestry.

ENE-1.F: Explain how changes to the structure of an enzyme may affect its function.

ENE-1.G: Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity

SYI-3.A: Explain the connection between variation in the number and types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and/or reproduce in different environments.

• Diffusion is the movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• Biological membranes are mainly composed of phospholipids and proteins. Their hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties are responsible for the semipermeability of plasma membranes.

ENE-1.C: Explain how specialized structures and strategies are used for the efficient exchange of molecules to the environment.

ENE-2.C: Explain how the structure of biological membranes influences selective permeability.

ENE-2.F: Describe the mechanisms that organisms use to transport large molecules across the plasma membrane.

ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

• The terms isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic describe the relative amount of solutes in a solution that surrounds cells.
• Osmosis is the net movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution.
• The amount of light transmitted through a colored solution depends on the concentration of the solution.

ENE-1.C: Explain how specialized structures and strategies are used for the efficient exchange of molecules to the environment.

ENE-2.C: Explain how the structure of biological membranes influences selective permeability.

ENE-2.F: Describe the mechanisms that organisms use to transport large molecules across the plasma membrane.

ENE-2.H: Explain how concentration gradients affect the movement of molecules across membranes.

ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

ENE-3.A: Describe positive and/or negative feedback mechanisms.

ENE-3.B: Explain how negative feedback helps to maintain homeostasis.

ENE-3.D: Explain how the behavioral and/or physiological response of an organism is related to changes in internal or external environment.

IST-3.A: Describe the ways that cells can communicate with one another.

IST-3.B: Explain how cells communicate with one another over short and long distances.

• Plant cells have a cell wall and a cell membrane.
• Plasmolysis occurs when the volume of the cytosol decreases, causing the cell membrane to pull away from the cell wall.
• The concentration of solutes in a solution influences the movement of water into or out of a cell.
• Solutions can be described as hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic relative to the cytosol of a cell.
• Salts contain charged particles, called ions, that conduct electricity.
• Water potential is affected by solute pressure and concentration. (Ψ = Ψs + Ψp)

ENE-2.D: Describe the role of the cell wall in maintaining cell structure and function.

ENE-2.F: Describe the mechanisms that organisms use to transport large molecules across the plasma membrane.

ENE-2.H: Explain how concentration gradients affect the movement of molecules across membranes.

ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function for biological systems, and they must be small to carry out essential life-sustaining functions.
• Diffusion of matter occurs along a concentration gradient, from high to low concentration.
• How to calculate surface area and volume for a cube and other geometric shapes.
• The concentration of salt dissolved in water correlates directly to ion conductivity.

EVO-2.B: Describe the fundamental molecular and cellular features shared across all domains of life, which provide evidence of common ancestry.

ENE-1.A: Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms.

ENE-1.B: Explain the effect of surface area-to-volume ratios on the exchange of materials between cells or organisms and the environment.

ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

• Basic nervous system structure, as well as the function of the hypothalamus.
• Homeostasis is the interplay between external factors and internal regulatory mechanisms that keep biological systems stable within a very narrow range.
• Feedback loops are an example of a regulating mechanism.
• Thermoregulation strategies in animals, including ectothermy and endothermy.

ENE-1.M: Describe the strategies organisms use to acquire and use energy.

ENE-3.A: Describe positive and/or negative feedback mechanisms.

ENE-3.B: Explain how negative feedback helps to maintain homeostasis.

ENE-3.D: Explain how the behavioral and/or physiological response of an organism is related to changes in internal or external environment.

IST-3.A: Describe the ways that cells can communicate with one another.

SYI-3.D: Explain how the genetic diversity of a species or population affects its ability to withstand environmental pressures.

• Structure and role of mitochondria in aerobic respiration (cellular energetics)
• Chemical equation for cellular respiration
• Introductory understanding of the aerobic respiration pathways (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation)
• Role of enzymes in biochemical pathways and the variables that can affect enzyme-catalyzed reactions

EVO-2.B: Describe the fundamental molecular and cellular features shared across all domains of life, which provide evidence of common ancestry.

ENE-1.H: Describe the role of energy in living organisms.

ENE-1.K: Describe the processes that allow organisms to use energy stored in biological macromolecules.

SYI-1.E: Explain how subcellular components and organelles contribute to the function of the cell.

SYI-1.F: Describe the structural features of a cell that allow organisms to capture, store, and use energy.

• Sunlight is a mixture of different wavelengths of light.
• Leaves contain pigment molecules that absorb light.
• The color of an object is the result of light interacting with the pigments it contains.
• Chlorophyll is not the only pigment present in leaves.
• Plants absorb carbon dioxide as a source of carbon for the sugars and other compounds made during photosynthesis.

ENE-1.A: Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms.

ENE-1.I: Describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture and store energy.

ENE-1.J: Explain how cells capture energy from light and transfer it to biological molecules for storage and use.

ENE-1.O: Explain how the activities of autotrophs and heterotrophs enable the flow of energy within an ecosystem.

SYS-3.A: Explain the connection between variation in the number and types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and/or reproduce in different environments.

• The color of a leaf is determined by the color of light reflected by its pigments.
• Pigments are molecules that absorb certain wavelengths of light, thereby providing the energy that drives photosynthesis.
• The light reactions of photosynthesis involve electron transport chains (ETC) that accept “excited” electrons.
• Chromatography is the process of separating molecules based on their differential affinity for a substrate or solvent.

ENE-1.A: Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms.

ENE-1.I: Describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture and store energy.

ENE-1.J: Explain how cells capture energy from light and transfer it to biological molecules for storage and use.

ENE-2.A: Describe the roles of each of the components of the cell membrane in maintaining the internal environment of the cell.

ENE-2.K: Describe the membrane-bound structures of the eukaryotic cell.

ENE-4.C: Explain how community structure is related to energy availability in the environment.

SYI-1.F: Describe the structural features of a cell that allow organisms to capture, store, and use energy.

SYS-3.A: Explain the connection between variation in the number and types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and/or reproduce in different environments.

• Properties of water: cohesion, adhesion, and hydrogen bonding.
• The relationship between volume and pressure is an inverse relationship.
• Water potential is the driving force behind transpiration.
• Plants have vascular structures specialized for water transport.
• Plants must balance their requirements for water and carbon dioxide with the risk of excessive water loss through evaporation.
• Gas exchange is regulated through the opening and closing of leaf stomata.

ENE-1.A: Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms.

ENE-2.H: Explain how concentration gradients affect the movement of molecules across membranes.

ENE-2.I: Explain how osmoregulatory mechanisms contribute to the health and survival of organisms.

ENE-3.A: Describe positive and/or negative feedback mechanisms.

ENE-3.D: Explain how the behavioral and/or physiological response of an organism is related to changes in internal or external environment.

SYS-3.D: Explain how the genetic diversity of a species or population affects its ability to withstand environmental pressures.

• Foundational understanding of the purpose of mitosis and its phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
• Understanding of the cell cycle and its component phases: G1, S, G2, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
• Ability to view cells under a microscope.
• Ability to differentiate between cells in interphase and cells in mitosis.

IST-1.B: Describe the events that occur in the cell cycle.

IST-1.C: Explain how mitosis results in the transmission of chromosomes from one generation to the next.

IST-1.D: Describe the role of checkpoints in regulating the cell cycle.

IST-1.K: Describe the structures involved in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next.

• Diploid cells (2n) are cells that contain two sets of chromosomes, one maternal set and one paternal set. In animals, all cells are diploid except gametes.
• Haploid cells (n) are cells that contain half the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell from the same species.
• Meiosis produces haploid cells.
• Sexually reproducing species produce non-identical offspring. Sexual reproduction is an important part of generating genetic variation in populations.
• The genotype is the combination of genes an organism inherits; the phenotype is a result of gene expression. (the appearance of the organism).
• Chromosomes exist in the “X” shape only during some phases of cell division. X-shaped chromosomes are composed of identical sister chromatids formed when DNA replication occurs prior to cell division beginning.
• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids during meiosis.

IST-1.F: Explain how meiosis results in the transmission of chromosomes from one generation to the next.

IST-1.G: Describe similarities and/ or differences between the phases and outcomes of mitosis and meiosis.

IST-1.H: Explain how the process of meiosis generates genetic diversity.

IST-1.I: Explain the inheritance of genes and traits as described by Mendel’s laws.

IST-1.K: Describe the structures involved in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next.

IST-4.A: Explain how changes in genotype may result in changes in phenotype.

SYI-3.C: Explain how chromosomal inheritance generates genetic variation in sexual reproduction.

• The role of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and fermentation in energy transfer and material cycling in ecosystems.
• Trophic level pyramids and food web illustrations represent energy flow through ecosystems.
• A percentage of energy is lost each time it moves through the food chain.
• Decomposers and detritivores are typically not shown in these illustrations because energy can enter this trophic level from any of the others.

ENE-1.A: Describe the composition of macromolecules required by living organisms.

ENE-1.H: Describe the role of energy in living organisms.

ENE-1.I: Describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture and store energy.

ENE-4.B: Explain how interactions within and among populations influence community structure.

SYI-1.G: Describe factors that influence growth dynamics of populations.

• Genotype gives rise to phenotype. Only traits that are heritable can be reliably transmitted to the next generation.
• With genetic variation comes the potential for mutations.
• Artificial selection is a type of selection in which individuals with a desired trait are selectively bred in order to increase the occurrence of that trait.
• Under natural selection, environmental conditions influence the differential reproductive success of populations best suited for a particular environment.
• Natural selection over a long period of time is a mechanism of evolution.
• Fossil fuel contaminants such as carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere to yield acidic precipitation.

EVO-1.C: Describe the causes of natural selection.

EVO-1.D: Explain how natural selection affects populations.

EVO-1.E: Describe the importance of phenotypic variation in a population.

EVO-1.F: Explain how humans can affect diversity within a population.

EVO-3.A: Explain how evolution is an ongoing process in all living organisms.

• DNA structure and function, including a basic understanding of exons, introns, and nucleic acids.
• Protein structure and function, including familiarity with hemoglobin.
• Evolutionary relationships are inferred by comparing physical features as well as molecular sequences between species.

EVO-1.H: Explain how random occurrences affect the genetic makeup of a population.

EVO-1.M: Describe the types of data that provide evidence for evolution.

EVO-1.N: Explain how morphological, biochemical, and geological data provide evidence that organisms have changed over time.

EVO-2.B: Describe the fundamental molecular and cellular features shared across all domains of life, which provide evidence of common ancestry.

EVO-2.C: Describe structural and functional evidence on cellular and molecular levels that provides evidence for the common ancestry of all eukaryotes.

EVO-3.A: Explain how evolution is an ongoing process in all living organisms.

EVO-3.B: Describe the types of evidence that can be used to infer an evolutionary relationship.

EVO-3.C: Explain how a phylogenetic tree and/or cladogram can be used to infer evolutionary relatedness.

• Genetics vocabulary: alleles, heterozygous, homozygous, genotype, and phenotype.
• Evolution by natural selection: natural selection acts on phenotypes, but only heritable variations can be acted upon by selection forces.
• Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that can lead to speciation and changes in biodiversity over time.
• New alleles are introduced into a gene pool through mutations or migrations.
• Basic math skills: percentages and frequencies, solving for an unknown, taking a square root of a number/squaring a number.

EVO-1.C: Describe the causes of natural selection.

EVO-1.H: Explain how random occurrences affect the genetic makeup of a population.

EVO-1.I: Describe the role of random processes in the evolution of specific populations.

EVO-1.K: Describe the conditions under which allele and genotype frequencies will change in populations.

EVO-1.M: Describe the types of data that provide evidence for evolution.

• Mendelian genetics
• Hardy-Weinberg equation and conditions
• How natural selection can alter the allele frequencies in a population
• Basic understanding of spreadsheets (Microsoft Excelor Google Sheets™)

EVO-1.C: Describe the causes of natural selection.

EVO-1.E: Describe the importance of phenotypic variation in a population.

EVO-1.H: Explain how random occurrences affect the genetic makeup of a population.

EVO-1.K: Describe the conditions under which allele and genotype frequencies will change in populations.

EVO-1.L: Explain the impacts on the population if any of the conditions of Hardy-Weinberg are not met.

EVO-3.A: Explain how evolution is an ongoing process in all living organisms.

• Learned vs. innate behaviors
• Null hypothesis
• Chi-square analysis and its applications
• Natural Selection
• General understanding of the genetic basis of behavior and the role of taxis
• The role of phototaxis, chemotaxis, thermotaxis, and geotaxis in animal behavior
• The impact of abiotic and biotic factors on the taxis of animal behavior

ENE-3.D: Explain how the behavioral and/or physiological response of an organism is related to changes in internal or external environment.

ENE-4.B: Explain how interactions within and among populations influence community structure.

IST-5.A: Explain how the behavioral responses of organisms affect their overall fitness and may contribute to the success of the population.

SYI-1.G: Describe factors that influence growth dynamics of populations.